Volume 29, Number 1 Spring 2005 ABSTRACTS |
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English Language Learners Left Behind in Arizona: The Nullification
of Accommodations in the Intersection of Federal and State Policies
Current educational reform
efforts in Arizona involve three major federal and state language
and assessment policies: (a) AZ LEARNS (2001), Arizona’s high-stakes
testing and school accountability program; (b)No Child Left Behind
(2002); and (c) Proposition 203 (2000), which places restrictions
on programs for English language learner (ELL) students. Each policy
calls for the full inclusion of ELLs in statewide high-stakes testing.
These policies are analyzed from frameworks of educational language
policy. The findings reveal that these school reform efforts function
as restricted-oriented language policies, particularly as the three
policies intersect. Furthermore, it is found that most of the accommodations
for ELLs called for within these policies are nullified in the intersection,
especially at the level of interpretation and implementation. The
remaining accommodation-oriented policies are less helpful to ELLs,
and may in fact be more beneficial to state policy actors by masking
the harmful effects their restricted-oriented policies are having
on ELL students. Suggestions for improving this situation are considered
in the Conclusion.
In this article, the authors
report select results of a national survey of state requirements
and recommendations regarding identification and reclassification
of English Language Learners (ELLs) conducted in academic year 2001–2002,
called the Survey of State Policies for Identification and Reclassification
of Limited English Proficient Students. The purpose of the State
Survey was twofold: (1) to obtain data regarding current state practices
with respect to identification and reclassification of ELLs; and
(2) to raise questions regarding the appropriateness of three dominant
practices, namely, (a) the use of academic achievement tests for
the purpose of identification, (b) routine assessment of children’s
oral native- language ability, and (c) the use of cutoff scores
in determining identification or reclassification of ELL status.
It is argued that such practices may lead to errors in identification
and reclassification of ELLs, which in turn may have negative consequences
for students.
This article reviews the current policy context in the state of Arizona for program options for English language learners and produces a meta-analysis of studies on the effectiveness of bilingual education that have been conducted in the state in or after 1985. The study presents an analysis of a sample of evaluation studies (N = 4), which demonstrates a positive effect for bilingual education on all measures, both in English and the native language of English language learners, when compared to English-only instructional alternatives. We conclude that current state policy is at odds with the best synthesis of the empirical evidence, and we recommend that current policy mandating English-only and forbidding bilingual education be abandoned in favor of program choices made at the level of the local community.
This project draws on Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) work with metaphor analysis to uncover the rhetorical strategies applied by supporters of the English for the Children organization during the 2000 Arizona Proposition 203 campaign. The data were collected from three sources: (a) The Arizona Republic; (b) the East Valley Tribune; and (c) the 2000 Arizona Voter Information Pamphlet. Grounded in Critical Discourse Analysis (Fairclough &Wodak 1997; Johnstone 2002; Schiffrin 2002), Santa Ana’s (2002) metaphor analysis framework was applied to expose the metaphors used to denigrate bilingual education and those who support it, as well as the underlying ideology behind biased legislation like Proposition 203. Metaphors were analyzed in terms of the cognitive entailments produced by their source and target domains. In general, the overall debate between bilingual education and Proposition 203 was characterized as a WAR. The results show that extra emphasis was placed on portraying bilingual education as a FAILURE and situating minority-language students as VICTIMS. Conversely, English was enshrined in the media as the key to the “American Dream.” This work exemplifies the analytical power of critical discourse analysis by illustrating how language is utilized as a tool for political ends.
AnCita Benally and Denis Viri
Until about 20 years ago, the Navajo language was one of the most resilient American Indian languages in modern U.S. history. Today, at the dawn of the 21st century, that has all changed. Some changes can be attributed to the normal dynamics of cultural transmission that affect language use. Some others, such as the dramatic shift toward English that is occurring—largely due to the agency of public education and mass media—are jeopardizing the survival of the Navajo language. The Navajo language is at a crossroads; it can still be renewed among the growing number of non-speakers so it can be strengthened, or it can continue to decline in its use. On several levels the language appears to remain strong and viable, but on others the telltale signs of impending extinction are becoming apparent. This paper addresses the differences between the normal changes and adaptation of Navajo as a living language and those that are indicative of language loss or other dramatic linguistic shifts that threaten its viability and survival.
How Census 2000 Data Suggest Hostility Toward Mexican-Origin Arizonians Kay Hunnicutt and Mario Castro
Using the Arizona 5% Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) from the 2000 U.S. Census, we compare language-related figures for the Mexican-origin population with those for the total population. Additionally, we compare place of birth and educational attainment data for Mexican-origin persons who speak Spanish at home with those who speak English-only to provide a fuller characterization of these groupings. The 5% PUMS files contain individual records of responses to census questionnaires representing a 5% sample of the occupied and vacant housing units in Arizona and the persons in the occupied units. Our purpose is to more fully characterize the Arizona population to assist in improving education, language, and legal policy in the state, and we conclude that current legal, language, and education initiatives, such as efforts to impose an official English language and to restrict native languages in schools, are at odds with population figures and may signal hostility toward Mexican-origin Arizonians.
An Examination of the Validity of English-Language Achievement Test Scores in an English Language Learner Population Rodolfo Abella, Joanne Urritia, and Aleksandr Shneyderman
Approximately 1,700 English language learners (ELLs) and former ELL students, in Grades 4 and 10, were tested using both an English-language (Stanford Achievement Test, 9th ed.) and a Spanish-language (Aprenda, 2nd ed.) achievement test. Their performances on the two tests were contrasted. The results showed that ELL students, for the most part, answered more items correctly on a home-language mathematics test, compared to a similar English-language math test, regardless of their level of home-language literacy. Additionally, former ELL students are often unable to exhibit their content-area knowledge on English-language achievement tests, possibly due to language and cultural barriers. In summary, the results show that the achievement test results of ELL students, when tested in English, are not always valid measures of their content-area knowledge.
Dual Language Education: A Promising 50-50 Model Leo Gómez, David Freeman, and Yvonne Freeman
Dual language education programs have become extremely popular. Although these programs share common characteristics, they vary in several respects. Programs use different languages and include students with varying characteristics. For instance, many of these programs include students with fluent English proficiency and those with limited English proficiency; students identified with learning disabilities and those who are gifted; and students who are economically advantaged and those who are disadvantaged. Two basic dual language program models are the 90–10 and 50–50 models. This article describes a unique 50–50 model that divides language of instruction by content area as well as by time. The model has been successfully implemented in regions with high concentrations of Latino students. It does not require a 50–50 balance of native English speakers and native Spanish speakers. In addition to describing the model, the authors report results of standardized tests, administered in English, that indicate that students in schools following this model are achieving high levels of academic proficiency in reading and mathematics.
Linguistic Access and Participation: English Language Learners in an English-Dominant Community of Practice Ana Christina DaSilva Iddings
This investigation explored the ways in which English language learners (ELLs) included in an English-dominant, mainstream second-grade classroom gained access to classroom activities and to the language that conveyed them, and the ways in which these students came to participate in the classroom context. These questions were investigated through the lens of the theoretical construct of community of practice, which emphasizes learning as participation in social practices. Qualitative methodologies such as observations, interviews with students and teachers, field notes, and videotaping and audiotaping of student–student and student–teacher interactions were employed. The findings of this study suggest that for ELLs in the English-dominant environment, their linguistic access to classroom activities and their progression toward meaningful participation were in many ways complicated by: (a) unequal participation in the classroom activities, (b) ambiguities in the purposes of instruction, and (c) vagueness in communication by teachers (i.e., lack of clarity when giving directions, poor word choices, and incomplete explanations). Consequentially, the general divide of shared knowledge among members of the class gave way to subcommunities that were parallel to one another, creating a disconnection between the participants of the classroom community.
The Ameliorating Effects of High Socioeconomic Status: A Secondary Analysis Stephen Krashen
Clara Lee Brown
A secondary analysis of previously published data shows that high-socioeconomic status (SES) English language learners (ELLs) outperform low-SES fluent English speakers on tests of math, and they do about as well on tests of reading. Thus, for ELLs, SES can offset the effects of language proficiency on standardized tests of math and reading. This result suggests that we can improve the performance of all ELLs by providing aspects of high SES known to impact school performance. This can be done by improving the print environment and providing bilingual education.
Research
in Practice This paper looks at the Chinese heritage language schools in metropolitan Phoenix area and examines what role parents of the students play in the schools. Based on semi-structured interviews, class observations and publication from the local Chinese schools, this study shows that although Chinese schools have benefited from the support of parents in many ways, the excessive dependence on them has contributed to some problems in Chinese schools, including low quality of teaching and inadequately prepared teachers. Recommendations are made to improve the situation by exploring the potential resources unavailable among parents. More connections need to be built with Chinese international students, scholars and faculty in education or Chinese program at local universities.
Effective Teaching Strategies for English Language Learners This paper provides effective strategies for early childhood teachers to use with children who are English language learners (ELLs). The strategies were compiled from interviews with 20 early childhood educators from two culturally and linguistically diverse communities in Massachusetts. Emphasis was placed on the strategies that the greatest number of teachers from both school districts identified as effective. These teaching strategies seek to help ELL students make connections between content and language, and support their communication and social interactions.
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