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Introduction

The number of Vietnamese people living in the United States has risen quickly since 1975. It is estimated that by the year 2000 the population of Vietnamese Americans will reach 1.2 million, passing the Japanese American and Korean American populations but still ranking third after Chinese Americans and Filipino Americans (Gardner, 1989). Furthermore, the Vietnamese population tends to congregate together. For example, of the 280,223 Vietnamese living in California, 85% live in six counties (Chung, 1994). In California schools, Vietnamese comprise the second largest language minority group behind Spanish (California Department of Education, 1998). There were 43,008 Limited English Proficient and 33,051 Fully English Proficient Vietnamese students in California in spring 1998. Despite the obvious language needs of the Vietnamese students, there is a desperate scarcity of available Vietnamese-speaking teachers. In 1997, there were only 85 credentialed Vietnamese bilingual teachers for a ratio of 506 to 1 (California Department of Education, 1997).

Parental attitudes toward their native and American culture greatly influence a child's success as a student of English as a second language. The use of the native language by parents at home will help with the development of literacy and school preparedness (Nieto, 1992). Delgado-Gaitan (1990) argues that there is a great need for parents to become involved in their children's literacy development. Parents can show support for school activities, collaborate with the school in directing school activities, and provide a home environment that supports literacy. Parental attitudes toward bilingual education and language learning play a large role in the success of any language program. De la Garza, DeSipio, Garcia, Garcia and Falcon (1992) found strong support for bilingual education among Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban parents. Baratz-Snowden, J., Rock, D., Pollack, J., & Wilder, G. (1988) found that the majority of Asian parents felt that teaching in a non-English language interferes with learning English while the majority of Latino parents did not. However, Krashen (1996) points out that some parents may have interpreted the question to mean all teaching would be in the primary language. In the same study, the majority of Asian parents felt that reading and writing and basic subjects should be taught only in English. A large number of Latino parents felt that reading, writing, and basic subjects should be taught in both English and non-English languages.

Krashen (1996) believes that the conflicting views toward bilingual education can be explained in the following manner. Opposition to bilingual education is most pronounced when an extreme view (only native language instruction) of bilingual education is presented. When subjects are asked about using both languages or are asked about bilingual education in general, responses are much more positive. Shin and her colleagues (Shin & Gribbons, 1996; Shin & Kim, in press; Shin & Lee, 1996) found that Latino, Korean, and Hmong parents tend to agree with the underlying principles of bilingual education.

The purpose of this study is to assess the attitudes of Vietnamese parents toward bilingual education. More specifically, attitudes toward participation in bilingual education, language use, and the underlying principles of bilingual education will be explored.

Methods

Sample

A total of 106 Vietnamese parents were surveyed in May 1997 on their attitudes toward bilingual education. Of the sample, 62 were male and 43 were female (one unknown). The median education for the fathers was a college degree with 15.6% having less than a high school degree, 27.1% having a high school degree, 44.8% having a college degree, and 12.5% having a graduate degree. The median education for mothers was a high school degree with 27.3% having less than a high school degree, 46.5% having a high school degree, 19.2% having a college degree, and 7.1% having a graduate degree. The monthly median income was between $1,000 and $2,000. The average number of years lived in America was 13.4 with a standard deviation of 7.3.

The participating Vietnamese parents had children attending the San Diego City Schools. The majority of the Vietnamese living in San Diego County live within the city boundaries. According to the 1990 census, 21,118 Vietnamese lived in San Diego County. Of these, 17,060 lived in the city of San Diego. This makes them the fifth largest ethnic group in the city behind Whites, Hispanics, Blacks, and Filipinos (San Diego Association of Governments, 1990).

Parent occupation and socio-economic levels varied widely among the sample. The parents came from all over the city. Many of the low-income families concentrate in one of two areas in the city where they mostly rent apartments. Many of the middle or upper class moved further to the north and are home-owners. The majority of the children attended mainstream classes. Although there were pull out classes, English as a second language classes, and Vietnamese aides and volunteers, there were no Vietnamese bilingual programs in the area.

Outside the classroom, the Vietnamese community ran a Saturday language school for grades K through 5 in a church. Here the children learned Vietnamese language, culture, and customs.

Instrument

The survey was adapted from studies on attitudes toward bilingual education of Hmong (Shin & Lee, 1996) and Korean (Shin & Kim, in press) parents. The survey contains items on demographics (gender, residency, income, and education), English language proficiency, home language use, and attitudes toward bilingual education. Five demographic questions asked about gender, length of residency, educational level of father, educational level of mother, and family income. Six questions asked about language used in the family and proficiency of parents. Two questions asked about attitudes toward enrolling their own child in a bilingual classroom versus an English only classroom. Seven questions asked about their attitudes toward statements describing the rationale of bilingual education. The survey was translated from English to Vietnamese by one of the authors who is fully bilingual and biliterate in Vietnamese and English.

Data Collection

The surveys were distributed in two manners. First, 75 surveys were collected at a Vietnamese Parent Teacher Association meeting. Second, 31 surveys were collected by Vietnamese teachers in the field. All surveys were anonymous.

First, 75 surveys were collected at two Vietnamese Parent Teacher Association meetings. Questionnaires were distributed at the meeting by one of the authors who is a Vietnamese native with direct ties to the association. She previously held the position of vice president. Parents were told that only one parent from each family was to fill out the questionnaire. The author was available for questioning during the time they filled out the questionnaires. Just over one hundred parents were present at the meeting.

A second meeting was held one month later for those Vietnamese parents who could not attend the first one. At this meeting, the president of the Vietnamese Parent Teacher Association collected all the filled-out questionnaires in the same manner as the first meeting. The completed questionnaires were then returned to the author.

Results

A definite language shift could be seen within the families. Vietnamese was the predominant language spoken in 84.6% of the homes, while both languages were spoken in 15.4%. No families reported speaking only English at home. Vietnamese was the most commonly spoken language of the children at 59.2%. English was the major language of 7.8% of the children while 33% used both. The language spoken most often among children was still Vietnamese at 45.1%; 21.6% spoke only English, and 33.3% of the children spoke both languages among themselves.

Most parents felt that if children were not proficient in English, then they would prefer a bilingual classroom to an English only environment (81.6% to 18.4%). Likewise, most parents felt that if their children were proficient in both English and Vietnamese, they would still prefer a bilingual setting to an English only one (80.6% to 19.4%).

TABLE 1: Participation in Bilingual Programs

Participation in bilingual education program
Bilingual

English only

If your child is not proficient in English, would you prefer them to be enrolled in an English-only classroom, or a bilingual classroom where both Vietnamese and English are used as a medium of instruction?
81.6

18.4

If your child is proficient in both English and Vietnamese, would you want them to be enrolled in a classroom where Vietnamese language is part of the curriculum or an English-only classroom?
80.6

19.4

Most of the parents agreed with the main principles that are the foundations of bilingual education. Most parents felt that bilingual education would allow children to keep up in the subject matter while acquiring English (81%). Most parents (75.5%) believed that developing literacy in the primary language was necessary in order to facilitate the acquisition of English. The majority of parents (63.7%) felt that learning the subject matter through the primary language first would make the subject matter taught in English more understandable. Almost all (93.1%) of the parents believed that high levels of bilingualism could lead to practical, career related advantages. Likewise, most parents (92.2%) felt that high levels of bilingualism could result in superior cognitive development. Almost all (96.1%) agreed that it was necessary to maintain their children's primary language and culture. Lastly, most (65.3%) felt that it would not be confusing to have both Vietnamese and English classes at the same time.

TABLE 2: Rationale for Bilingual Education

Rationale for bilingual education
Agree

Disagree

Not sure

Bilingual education allows children to keep up in subject matter while acquiring English.
81.0

4.8

14.2

Developing literacy in the primary language is necessary in order to facilitate the acquisition in English.
75.5

10.8

13.7

Learning subject matter through the primary language first will make subject matter taught in English more understandable.
63.7

16.7

19.6

High levels of bilingualism can lead to practical, career-related advantages.
93.1

2.0

4.9

High levels of bilingualism can result in superior cognitive development.
92.2

2.9

4.9

It is necessary to keep your child's primary language and culture.
96.1

1.0

2.9

It would be confusing for Vietnamese students to have classes in Vietnamese and English at the same time.
34.7

65.3

0.0

Analysis of variance indicated that length of residency in the United States was related to positive attitudes toward bilingual education in the cases where children were proficient in both English and Vietnamese, F(2, 98) = 3.645, p = .0592. Chi square results indicated that mothers were more inclined to want their children in a bilingual classroom over an English only classroom than fathers, regardless if the child was proficient in English and Vietnamese X²(1, N = 102) = 9.436, p < .05 or Limited English Proficient, X²(1, N = 102) = 6.213, p < .05. There was no conclusive evidence of a relationship between language spoken at home and attitude toward bilingual education. Interestingly, English usage in the home (as measured by language shift among children), was not related to attitudes toward bilingual education when LEP students were concerned, X² (2, 99) = .759, p = .6841. However, in those homes where English was used more often, parents felt that bilingual children could benefit from being in a bilingual classroom more than an English only classroom, X² (2, 99) = 7.003, p = .0301.

Discussion

Other studies have shown similar support of bilingual education among Hmong (Shin & Lee, 1996), Latino (Shin & Gribbons, 1996), and Korean (Shin & Kim, in press) parents. Santos (1985) found that Latino parents with children in bilingual education had stronger, more positive attitudes toward bilingual education than Vietnamese parents. Still, Vietnamese parents exhibited a more favorable outlook toward bilingual education overall.

In general, Shin and Lee (1996) concluded that there was considerable support for the underlying principles of bilingual education involving parents from different ethnic and socio-economic backgrounds (the Korean parents tended to have higher education and income levels; Hispanics tended to live in the United States longer). For example, while 75% of the Vietnamese agreed with the statement "developing literacy in primary language is necessary in order to facilitate the acquisition in English," 53% of Hispanic (Shin & Gribbons, 1996), 88% of Koreans (Shin & Kim, in press), and 52% of Hmong parents (Shin & Lee, 1996) agreed. Santos (1985) found that Latino parents with children in bilingual education had stronger, more positive attitudes toward bilingual education than Vietnamese parents did. Still, Vietnamese were favorable to bilingual education.

The last question asked whether it would be confusing for Vietnamese students to have classes in Vietnamese and English at the same time. This question could be interpreted in many ways. It may have been interpreted as code-switching by the teacher, bilingual instruction in one class, or different classes, some in English, some in Vietnamese. Despite the potential confusion of the wording, almost two-thirds felt that using both languages in school would not be confusing. Bilingual programs can be defined as the use of the native language in the classroom while getting gradual exposure to English, whether it be in one class or more. The result of this question supports the attitude that use of two languages would not be an impediment to learning, thus lending support for bilingual education.

The large favorable response may seem unexpected considering the backlash against bilingual education in California. Proposition 227, the anti-bilingual education initiative, was passed by 61% of the voters. Two possible explanations are given for the seemingly contradictory results. First, the Vietnamese were slightly less favorable toward Proposition 227 than the voters as a whole. The Los Angeles Times/CNN exit poll (1998) found 57% of the Asians favored Proposition 227 in comparison to 61%. Although the majority of Asians still favored the passage of the proposition, it can be argued that the voters are not a representative sample of the Vietnamese group as a whole. Non-citizens or those with poor English language skills would likely be less represented in the voting sample. However, these are the people that most likely could benefit from bilingual education.

A second rationale for the results was discussed previously. Krashen (1996) maintains that extreme views of bilingual education are less supported than general perspectives of bilingual education. This study posed statements in the latter form and it was found that the underlying principles of bilingual education are supported. Proposition 227, on the other hand, posed a very extreme view of bilingual education which most people found objectionable. The wording of the proposition states that "bilingual education/native language instruction means a language acquisition process for students in which much or all instruction, textbooks, and teaching materials are in the child's native language." In reality, most bilingual programs are transitional where there is a gradual increase of English use. Nevertheless, newspapers often described bilingual education as use of the native language in classrooms from five to seven years.

Interestingly, length of residency in the United States was positively related to attitudes toward bilingual education. The longer one lived in the United States, the more one felt the need for bilingual education. However, this only applied to cases where children were bilingual. If children are not proficient in English, length of stay in the United States was not a factor in determining one's beliefs.

Although most parents favored bilingual education, this attitude was more pronounced among parents who lived in dual language homes than Vietnamese only homes. Also, the use of bilingual education seemed to be more applicable to bilingual children than limited English proficient. This may stem from the added anxiety one feels when one must depend on schools for English language instruction. Homes where English is spoken are more in partnership with the schools in meeting the language needs of children. Bilingual homes are more accepting of dual language instruction in the schools. In homes where children are limited English proficient, there is more faith in the sink or swim method of language learning. The location of the study may have influenced the results of the study. The study took place in a large metropolitan area in California with a Vietnamese population of over 20,000. With such a large population there is more opportunity to maintain the Vietnamese language and culture (i.e., newspapers, Vietnamese Parent Teacher Association, stores, restaurants). Likewise, there is more opportunity to have children located in schools with either a Vietnamese teacher or aide. Therefore, parents are likely to have knowledge of the advantages of a Vietnamese language contact or teacher in the school. Such contact would endear the parents to the merits of bilingual education.

Lastly, Tran (1992) suggests that Vietnamese parent involvement in schools would create a greater awareness of cultural values and a sense of collective responsibility, which is inherent in their value system. Knowing Vietnamese parent attitudes toward bilingual education can greatly facilitate planning of such programs. Involving parents in the programmatic decision-making process will help ensure the success of bilingual programs for a growing Vietnamese student population.

References

Baratz-Snowden, J., Rock, D., Pollack, J., & Wilder, G. (1988). Parent preference study. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

California Department of Education. (1998). Language Census.

California Department of Education. (1997). Language Census.

Chung, H. C. (1994). Vietnamese students: Changing patterns changing needs. San Francisco: Many Cultures Publishing.

de la Garza, R., DeSipio, L., Garcia, F. C., Garcia, J., & Falcon, A. (1992). Latino voices: Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban perspectives on American politics. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Delgado-Gaitan, C. (1990). Literacy for empowerment: The role of parents in children's education. New York: Falmer Press.

Gardner, R. W., et al. (1989). Asian Americans: Growth, change and diversity. Population Bulletin, 40 (4).

Krashen, S. (1996). Surveys of opinions on bilingual education: Some current issues. Bilingual Research Journal, 20 (3&4), 411-431.

Los Angeles Times. (1998, June 4). Los Angeles Times/CNN exit poll.

Nieto, S. (1992). Affirming diversity. New York: Longman.

San Diego Association of Governments. (1990). Census of population and housing, 1990.

Santos, S. (1985). Parental perceptions of bilingual education in northeast Texas: Implications for administrators. NABE: Journal for the National Association for Bilingual Education, 9 (3), 57-67.

Shin, F., & Gribbons, B. (1996). Hispanic parent perceptions and attitudes of bilingual education. The Journal of Mexican American Educators, 16-22.

Shin, F., & Kim, S. (in press). Korean parent perceptions and attitudes of bilingual education. In R. Endo, C. Park, J. Tsuchida, & A. Agbayani (Eds.), Current issues in Asian and Pacific American education. Covina, CA: Pacific Asian Press.

Shin, F., & Lee, B. (1996). Hmong parents: What do they think about bilingual education? Pacific Educational Research Journal, 8 (1), 65-71.

Tran, M. (1992). Maximizing Vietnamese parent involvement in schools. NASSP Bulletin, 76-79.